Medical student preparedness for an era of personalized medicine: findings from one US medical school

Papers of special note have been highlighted as: • of interest; •• of considerable interest

References

• 1 Collins FS, Varmus H. A new initiative on precision medicine. N. Engl. J. Med. 372(9), 793–795 (2015).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 2 Abul-Husn NS, Owusu Obeng A, Sanderson SC, Gottesman O, Scott SA. Implementation and utilization of genetic testing in personalized medicine. Pharmgenomics Pers. Med. 7, 227–240 (2014). •• Details the current state of the personalized medicine genetic testing field, focusing on pharmacogenetic testing and clinical implementation.
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 3 Marsolo K, Spooner SA. Clinical genomics in the world of the electronic health record. Genet. Med. 15(10), 786–791 (2013).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 4 Shirts BH, Salama JS, Aronson SJ et al. CSER and eMERGE: current and potential state of the display of genetic information in the electronic health record. J. Am. Med. Inform. Assoc. 22(6), 1231–1242 (2015).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 5 Klitzman R, Chung W, Marder K et al. Attitudes and practices among internists concerning genetic testing. J. Genet. Couns. 22(1), 90–100 (2013).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 6 Overby CL, Erwin AL, Abul-Husn NS et al. Physician attitudes toward adopting genome-guided prescribing through clinical decision support. J. Pers. Med. 4(1), 35–49 (2014). •• Survey of Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai primary care physicians reveals low familiarity and comfort in interpreting and utilizing genomic information in clinical care.
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 7 Stanek EJ, Sanders CL, Taber KA et al. Adoption of pharmacogenomic testing by US physicians: results of a nationwide survey. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 91(3), 450–458 (2012). • National survey of physicians demonstrates low familiarity with pharmacogenomic testing and its applications.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 8 Vassy JL, Christensen KD, Slashinski MJ et al. ‘Someday it will be the norm’: physician perspectives on the utility of genome sequencing for patient care in the MedSeq Project. Per. Med. 12(1), 23–32 (2015).
  CASGoogle Scholar
• 9 Shuldiner AR, Relling MV, Peterson JF et al. The Pharmacogenomics Research Network Translational Pharmacogenetics Program: overcoming challenges of real-world implementation. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 94(2), 207–210 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 10 Haga SB, Burke W, Ginsburg GS, Mills R, Agans R. Primary care physicians’ knowledge of and experience with pharmacogenetic testing. Clin. Genet. 82(4), 388–394 (2012).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 11 Mai Y, Mitropoulou C, Papadopoulou XE et al. Critical appraisal of the views of healthcare professionals with respect to pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine in Greece. Per. Med. 11(1), 15–26 (2014).
  Google Scholar
• 12 Pisanu C, Tsermpini EE, Mavroidi E, Katsila T, Patrinos GP, Squassina A. Assessment of the pharmacogenomics educational environment in Southeast Europe. Public Health Genomics 17(5–6), 272–279 (2014).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 13 Gottesman O, Scott SA, Ellis SB et al. The CLIPMERGE PGx program: clinical implementation of personalized medicine through electronic health records and genomics-pharmacogenomics. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 94(2), 214–217 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 14 Guttmacher AE, Porteous ME, Mcinerney JD. Educating health-care professionals about genetics and genomics. Nat. Rev. Genet. 8(2), 151–157 (2007). • Describes the challenges of translating genomic technologies into healthcare practice, and what may be specifically required to equip current providers to integrate genomics into clinical care.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 15 Patay BA, Topol EJ. The unmet need of education in genomic medicine. Am. J. Med. 125(1), 5–6 (2012).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 16 Salari K. The dawning era of personalized medicine exposes a gap in medical education. PLoS Med. 6(8), e1000138 (2009).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 17 Demmer LA, Waggoner DJ. Professional medical education and genomics. Annu. Rev. Genomics Hum. Genet. 15, 507–516 (2014).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 18 Linderman MD, Bashir A, Diaz GA et al. Preparing the next generation of genomicists: a laboratory-style course in medical genomics. BMC Med. Genomics 8, 47 (2015).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 19 Salari K, Pizzo PA, Prober CG. Commentary: to genotype or not to genotype? Addressing the debate through the development of a genomics and personalized medicine curriculum. Acad. Med. 86(8), 925–927 (2011).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 20 Walt DR, Kuhlik A, Epstein SK et al. Lessons learned from the introduction of personalized genotyping into a medical school curriculum. Genet. Med. 13(1), 63–66 (2011).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 21 Aarons GA. Mental health provider attitudes toward adoption of evidence-based practice: the Evidence-Based Practice Attitude Scale (EBPAS). Ment. Health Serv. Res. 6(2), 61–74 (2004).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 22 Cronbach LJ, Warrington WG. Time-limit tests: estimating their reliability and degree of speeding. Psychometrika 16(2), 167–188 (1951).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 23 R Core Team. R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria (2015). www.R-project.org/.
  Google Scholar
• 24 Wickham H. ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis. Springer, New York (2009). http://had.co.nz/ggplot2/book.
  Google Scholar
• 25 Revelle W. psych: Procedures for Psychological, Psychometric, and Personality Research. Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA (2015). http://cran.r-project.org/package=psych.
  Google Scholar
• 26 Dinno A. dunn.test: Dunn's Test of Multiple Comparisons Using Rank Sums (2015). http://cran.r-project.org/package=dunn.test.
  Google Scholar
• 27 Scheuner MT, Sieverding P, Shekelle PG. Delivery of genomic medicine for common chronic adult diseases: a systematic review. JAMA 299(11), 1320–1334 (2008).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 28 Salari K, Karczewski KJ, Hudgins L, Ormond KE. Evidence that personal genome testing enhances student learning in a course on genomics and personalized medicine. PLoS ONE 8(7), e68853 (2013). •• Describes how Stanford students who analyzed their own genotyping data had increased knowledge of genetics and personal genome testing.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 29 Sanderson SC, Linderman MD, Zinberg R et al. How do students react to analyzing their own genomes in a whole-genome sequencing course?: outcomes of a longitudinal cohort study. Genet. Med. 17(11), 866–874 (2015). •• Outcomes of a genomics course incorporating personal whole genome sequencing at Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, revealing that personal genome testing may increase students’ motivation to learn, but there is a risk of result-related distress.
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 30 Association of American Medical Colleges. Contemporary issues in medicine: genetics education (Report VI). Medical School Objectives Project (MSOP) (2004). http://members.aamc.org/eweb/upload/Contemporary%20Issues%20in%20Med%20Genetics%20Education%20Report%20VI.pdf.
  Google Scholar
• 31 Korf BR, Berry AB, Limson M et al. Framework for development of physician competencies in genomic medicine: report of the Competencies Working Group of the Inter-Society Coordinating Committee for Physician Education in Genomics. Genet. Med. 16(11), 804–809 (2014).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar