Abstract
Aim: To evaluate the potential use of zinc chelation for prostate cancer therapy using a new liposomal formulation of the zinc chelator, N,N,N’,N’-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl)-ethylenediamine (TPEN). Materials & methods: TPEN was encapsulated in nontargeted liposomes or liposomes displaying an aptamer to target prostate cancer cells overexpression prostate-specific membrane antigen. The prostate cancer selectivity and therapeutic efficacy of liposomal (targeted and nontargeted) and free TPEN were evaluated in vitro and in tumor-bearing mice. Results & conclusion: TPEN chelates zinc and results in reactive oxygen species imbalance leading to cell death. Delivery of TPEN using aptamer-targeted liposomes results in specific delivery to targeted cells. In vivo experiments show that TPEN-loaded, aptamer-targeted liposomes reduce tumor growth in a human prostate cancer xenograft model.
Papers of special note have been highlighted as: • of interest; •• of considerable interest
References
- 1 . Characterising the castration-resistant prostate cancer population: a systematic review. Int. J. Clin. Pract. 65(11), 1180–1192 (2011).
- 2 . Novel role of zinc in the regulation of prostate citrate metabolism and its implications in prostate cancer. Prostate 35(4), 285–296 (1998).
- 3 . The clinical relevance of the metabolism of prostate cancer; zinc and tumor suppression: connecting the dots. Mol. Cancer
doi:10.1186/1476-4598-5-17 (2006) (Epub ahead of print). • Zinc is identified as an important factor for advanced prostate cancer development, and a possible novel target for future treatments. - 4 . Depletion of intracellular zinc increases expression of tumorigenic cytokines VEGF, IL-6 and IL-8 in prostate cancer cells via NF-kappaB-dependent pathway. Prostate 68(13), 1443–1449 (2008).
- 5 Direct intra-tumoral injection of zinc-acetate halts tumor growth in a xenograft model of prostate cancer. J. Exp. Clin. Canc. Res.
doi:10.1186/1756-9966-28-84 (2009) (Epub ahead of print). - 6 Zinc chelation induces rapid depletion of the X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP) and sensitizes prostate cancer cells to TRAIL-mediated apoptosis. Cell Death Differ. 15(11), 1745–1751 (2008).
- 7 . Zinc pyrithione induces ERK- and PKC-dependent necrosis distinct from TPEN-induced apoptosis in prostate cancer cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1823(2), 544–557 (2012).
- 8 . The cytotoxic and pro-apoptotic activities of the novel fluoropyrimidine F10 towards prostate cancer cells are enhanced by Zn2þ-chelation and inhibiting the serine protease Omi/HtrA2. Prostate 75(4), 360–369 (2015).• N,N,N’,N’-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl)-ethylenediamine is identified to induce apoptosis in a zinc-dependent manner, and can increase apoptotic activity of other drugs in advanced prostate cancer cell lines.
- 9 . Cytotoxic effects of intra and extracellular zinc chelation on human breast cancer cells. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 557(1), 9–19 (2007).
- 10 . TPEN induces apoptosis independently of Zinc chelator activity in a model of acute lymphoblastic leukemia and ex vivo acute leukemia cells through oxidative stress and mitochondria caspase-3- and AIF-dependent pathways. Oxid. Med. Cell Longev. 2012, e313275 (2012).
- 11 . Oxidative stress in prostate cancer. Cancer Lett. 282(2), 125–136 (2009).
- 12 . Protection by the heavy metal chelator N,N,N’,N’-tetrakis (2-pyridylmethyl)ethylenediamine (TPEN) against the lethal action of botulinum neurotoxin A and B. Toxicon 35(7), 1089–1100 (1997).
- 13 Pegylated liposomal doxorubicin (doxil): reduced clinical cardiotoxicity in patients reaching or exceeding cumulative doses of 500 mg/m2. Ann. Oncol. 11(8), 1029–1033 (2000).
- 14 . Dual radiolabeled liposomes: biodistribution studies and localization of focal sites of infection in rats. Nucl. Med. Biol. 25(2), 155–160 (1998).
- 15 Liposomal Cu-64 labeling method using bifunctional chelators: poly(ethylene glycol) spacer and chelator effects. Bioconjug. Chem. 21(7), 1206–1215 (2010).
- 16 Reversible cell-specific drug delivery with aptamer-functionalized liposomes. Angew. Chem Int. Ed. Engl. 48(35), 6494–6498 (2009).
- 17 . A liposome-based nanostructure for aptamer directed delivery. Chem. Commun. 46(2), 249–251 (2009).
- 18 . Dimeric DNA aptamer complexes for high-capacity-targeted drug delivery using pH-sensitive covalent linkages. Mol. Ther. Nucleic Acids 2(7), e107 (2013).•• The prostate-specific membrane antigen-specific aptamer SZTI01 is identified and displays differential binding to cells that express the target versus those that do not.
- 19 . Local tolerance and systemic safety of pegaptanib sodium in the dog and rabbit. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 23, 452–466 (2003).
- 20 . Prostate-specific membrane antigen expression in normal and malignant human tissues. Clin. Cancer Res. 3(1), 81–85 (1997).
- 21 Upregulation of prostate-specific membrane antigen after androgen-deprivation therapy. Urology 48(2), 326–334 (1996).
- 22 Highly active copper-based catalyst for atom transfer radical polymerization. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128(50), 16277–16285 (2006).
- 23 . Dichlorodihydrofluorescein and dihydrorhodamine 123 are sensitive indicators of peroxynitrite in vitro: implications for intracellular measurement of reactive nitrogen and oxygen species. Nitric Oxide 1(2), 145–157 (1997).
- 24 . Stable Mn(III) porphyrins mimic superoxide dismutase in vitro and substitute for it in vivo. J. Biol. Chem. 269(38), 23471–23476 (1994).
- 25 Pure MnTBAP selectively scavenges peroxynitrite over superoxide: comparison of pure and commercial MnTBAP samples to MnTE-2-PyP in two models of oxidative stress injury, an SOD-specific Escherichia coli model and carrageenan-induced pleurisy. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 46(2), 192–201 (2009).
- 26 . Role of zinc in the pathogenesis and treatment of prostate cancer: critical issues to resolve. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 7(2), 111–117 (2004).
- 27 . Intracellular zinc depletion induces caspase activation and p21 Waf1/Cip1 cleavage in human epithelial cell lines. J. Infect. Diss. 182(s1), S85–S92 (2000).
- 28 . N,N,N′,N′-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl)ethylenediamine induces apoptosis through the activation of caspases-3 and -8 in human platelets. A role for endoplasmic reticulum stress. J. Thromb. Haemost. 7(6), 992–999 (2009).
- 29 . Modulation of oxidative stress as an anticancer strategy. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 12(12), 931–947 (2013).
- 30 . Cellular repair of oxidatively induced DNA base lesions is defective in prostate cancer cell lines, PC-3 and DU-145. Carcinogenesis 25(8), 1359–1370 (2004).
- 31 Copper chelation selectively kills colon cancer cells through redox cycling and generation of reactive oxygen species. BMC Cancer 14, 527 (2014).
- 32 . Cytosolic Ca2+ homeostasis in Ehrlich and Yoshida carcinomas. A new, membrane-permeant chelator of heavy metals reveals that these ascites tumor cell lines have normal cytosolic free Ca2+. J. Biol. Chem. 260(5), 2719–2727 (1985).
- 33 . Mitochondrial aggregation precedes cytochrome c release from mitochondria during apoptosis. Oncogene 22(36), 5579–5585 (2003).
- 34 A non-comparative randomized Phase II study of 2 doses of ATN-224, a copper/zinc superoxide dismutase inhibitor, in patients with biochemically recurrent hormone-naïve prostate cancer. Urol. Oncol. 31(5), 581–588 (2013).