Abstract
Autophagy is an important biological mechanism that regulates the growth, death and energy metabolism of eukaryotic cells. It is also an active and evolutionarily conservative catabolic process to maintain homeostasis during cell stress response and cell survival. Autophagy maintains the body’s stability by degrading damaged proteins, organelles, cytoplasm and invasive microorganisms. Studies have found that autophagy also has a significant impact on the occurrence and development of tumors. Simultaneously, nanoparticles (NPs) can induce autophagy in cells, and the level of autophagy can be regulated by the synthesis design of NPs. Therefore, the study of the regulation of autophagy by NPs is of great significance for the treatment of cancer autocorrelation.
Papers of special note have been highlighted as: • of interest; •• of considerable interest
References
- 1. . [Autophagy and its relationship with tumor growth, invasion and treatment]. Hua Xi Kou Qiang Yi Xue Za Zhi. 33(01), 98–103 (2015). • In this paper, the reader has a certain understanding of the specific process of autophagy and the close relationship between autophagy and tumor.
- 2. . Autophagy pathway: cellular and molecular mechanisms. Autophagy 14(2), 207–215 (2018).
- 3. . A flow cytometric study of ER stress and autophagy. Cytometry A 95(6), 672–682 (2019). •• In this paper, the mechanism of endoplasmic reticulum stress, autophagy and cell death was elucidated by using drugs thapsigargin and chloroquine to induce or block autophagy and apoptosis.
- 4. . Comparison and analysis of methods of cell autophagy. J. Biol. 35(4), 1–6 (2018).
- 5. Progress in the molecular mechanism of autophagy-related protein ATG5/BECLIN-1 regulating autophagy and apoptosis. Chinese J. Zoonoses 34(3), 272–275 (2018).
- 6. . Immunopositivity of Beclin-1 and ATG5 as indicators of survival and disease recurrence in oral squamous cell carcinoma. Anticancer Res. 33(12), 5611–5616 (2013).
- 7. . Regulation of selective autophagy: the p62/SQSTM1 paradigm. Essays Biochem. 61(6), 609–624 (2017).
- 8. . Identifying an essential role of nuclear LC3 for autophagy. Autophagy 11(5), 852–3 (2015).
- 9. [Effects of notch signal on the expressions of HIF-α and autophagy-related genes Beclin1, LC3I, LC3II in oxygen-glucose deprivation induced myocardial cell injury]. Zhongguo Ying Yong Sheng Li Xue Za Zhi. 35(2), 165–168 (2019).
- 10. . Progress in autophagy and its inhibitors. J. Pract. Med. 29(17), 2908–2910 (2013). • This paper introduces the research progress of small molecule autophagy inhibitors, and provides a new way for readers to study the relationship between autophagy and related diseases.
- 11. Role of autophagy in breast cancer and breast cancer stem cells (review). Int. J. Oncol. 52(4), 1057–1070 (2018).
- 12. . Progress in mammalian rapamycin target protein and uterine leiomyoma. Chinese J. Pract. Gynecol. Obstet. 5(5), 601–603 (2019).
- 13. . Advances in cell autophagy and cancer therapy. Transl. Med. Electr. J. 4(5), 65–69 (2017).
- 14. . [Study on the regulation of cell autophagy by nanoparticle-protein complexes]. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences. Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (2018). •• In this paper, Fe3O4 nanoparticles, as a representative, are designed to regulate autophagy, which provides a new idea for autophagy based disease treatment.
- 15. . Mechanism and biological effect of autophagy induced by nanomaterials. Pharm. Res. 4, 226–230 (2017).
- 16. Autophagy modulators: mechanistic aspects and drug delivery systems. Biomolecules 9(10), 530 (2019).
- 17. . [The mechanism and effect of autophagy induced by nanomaterials]. Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Sciences. Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics (2016).
- 18. . Silica nanoparticles induce autophagy dysfunction via lysosomal impairment and inhibition of autophagosome degradation in hepatocytes. Int. J. Nanomedicine 12, 809–825 (2017). • In this paper, the mechanism of autophagy dysfunction caused by silica nanoparticles through lysosomal damage and inhibition of autophagy degradation is described.
- 19. Toxicity of carboxylated carbon nanotubes in endothelial cells is attenuated by stimulation of the autophagic flux with the release of nanomaterial in autophagic vesicles. Nanomedicine 10(5), 939–948 (2014).
- 20. Drug delivery by polymeric nanoparticles induces autophagy in macrophages. Int. J. Pharm. 422(1–2), 495–503 (2012).
- 21. . An ATP-regulated ion transport nanosystem for homeostatic perturbation therapy and sensitizing photodynamic therapy by autophagy inhibition of tumors. ACS Cent. Sci. 5(2), 327–340 (2019). •• In this paper, homeostatic perturbation therapy and sensitized photodynamic therapy were used to synthesize nanoparticles with high loading, which can achieve tumor eradication by inhibiting autophagy, and have more advantages than traditional inhibitors.
- 22. A novel orally available seleno-purine molecule suppresses triple-negative breast cancer cell proliferation and progression to metastasis by inducing cytostatic autophagy. Autophagy 15(8), 1376–1390 (2019).
- 23. Combination therapy with epigenetic-targeted and chemotherapeutic drugs delivered by nanoparticles to enhance the chemotherapy response and overcome resistance by breast cancer stem cells. J. Control. Release 205, 7–14 (2015).
- 24. Multifunctional nanoparticles based on a polymeric copper chelator for combination treatment of metastatic breast cancer. Biomaterials 195, 86–99 (2019).
- 25. Osteosarcoma therapy: inhibition of CaMKIIα activity enhances antitumor effect of fullerene C60 nanocrystals by suppression of autophagic degradation. Adv. Sci. 6(8), 1801233 (2019).
- 26. . CXCR4-targeted lipid-coated PLGA nanoparticles deliver sorafenib and overcome acquired drug resistance in liver cancer. Biomaterials 67, 194–203 (2015).
- 27. MiR-375 delivered by lipid-coated doxorubicin-calcium carbonate nanoparticles overcomes chemoresistance in hepatocellular carcinoma. Nanomedicine 13(8), 2507–2516 (2017).
- 28. Optoacoustic imaging identifies ovarian cancer using a microenvironment targeted theranostic wormhole mesoporous silica nanoparticle. Biomaterials 182, 114–126 (2018).
- 29. . Dual responsive micelles capable of modulating miRNA-34a to combat taxane resistance in prostate cancer. Biomaterials 192, 95–108 (2019).
- 30. Fluorescent magnetic PEI-PLGA nanoparticles loaded with paclitaxel for concurrent cell imaging, enhanced apoptosis and autophagy in human brain cancer. Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces 172, 708–717 (2018).
- 31. Nano neodymium oxide induces massive vacuolization and autophagic cell death in non-small cell lung cancer NCI-H460 cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 337(1), 52–60 (2005).
- 32. Induction of cyto-protective autophagy by paramontroseite VO2 nanocrystals. Nanotechnology 24(16), 165102 (2013).