The role of miRNA in prostate cancer diagnosis, prognosis and treatment response: a narrative review

Papers of special note have been highlighted as: • of interest; •• of considerable interest

References

• 1. Wang L, Lu B, He M, Wang Y, Wang Z, Du L. Prostate cancer incidence and mortality: global status and temporal trends in 89 countries from 2000 to 2019. Front. Public Health 10, 811044 (2022).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 2. American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts & Figures 2022 (2022). www.cancer.org/research/cancer-facts-statistics/all-cancer-facts-figures/cancer-facts-figures-2022.html
  Google Scholar
• 3. American Cancer Society. American Cancer Society recommendations for prostate cancer early detection (15/06). www.cancer.org/cancer/prostate-cancer/detection-diagnosis-staging/acs-recommendations.html#references
  Google Scholar
• 4. Carter HB, Albertsen PC, Barry MJ et al. Early detection of prostate cancer: AUA guideline. J. Urol. 190(2), 419–426 (2013).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 5. Bhavsar T, Mccue P, Birbe R. Molecular diagnosis of prostate cancer: are we up to age? Semin. Oncol. 40(3), 259–275 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 6. Adhyam M ,.Gupta AK. A review on the clinical utility of PSA in cancer prostate. Indian J. Surg. Oncol. 3(2), 120–129 (2012).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 7. Jones D, Friend C, Dreher A, Allgar V, Macleod U. The diagnostic test accuracy of rectal examination for prostate cancer diagnosis in symptomatic patients: a systematic review. BMC Fam. Pract. 19(1), 79 (2018).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 8. Bruinsma SM, Bangma CH, Carroll PR et al. Active surveillance for prostate cancer: a narrative review of clinical guidelines. . Nat. Rev. Urol. 13(3), 151–167 (2016).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 9. Eastham JA, Auffenberg GB, Barocas DA et al. Clinically localized prostate cancer: AUA/ASTRO guideline, part i: introduction, risk assessment, staging, and risk-based management. J. Urol. 208(1), 10–18 (2022).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 10. Lowrance WT, Breau RH, Chou R et al. Advanced prostate cancer: AUA/ASTRO/SUO guideline part I. J. Urol. 205(1), 14–21 (2021).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 11. Briganti A, Fossati N, Catto JWF et al. Active surveillance for low-risk prostate cancer: the European Association of Urology position in 2018. Eur. Urol. 74(3), 357–368 (2018).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 12. D'amico AV, Whittington R, Malkowicz SB et al. Biochemical outcome after radical prostatectomy, external beam radiation therapy, or interstitial radiation therapy for clinically localized prostate cancer. JAMA 280(11), 969–974 (1998).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 13. Cooperberg MR, Hilton JF, Carroll PR. The CAPRA-S score: a straightforward tool for improved prediction of outcomes after radical prostatectomy. Cancer 117(22), 5039–5046 (2011).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 14. Mohler J, Bahnson RR, Boston B et al. NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology: prostate cancer. J. Natl Compr. Canc. Netw. 8(2), 162–200 (2010).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 15. Bokhorst LP, Lepistö I, Kakehi Y et al. Complications after prostate biopsies in men on active surveillance and its effects on receiving further biopsies in the Prostate cancer Research International: Active Surveillance (PRIAS) study. BJU Int. 118(3), 366–371 (2016).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 16. Yadav SS, Stockert JA, Hackert V, Yadav KK, Tewari AK. Intratumor heterogeneity in prostate cancer. Urol. Oncol. 36(8), 349–360 (2018).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 17. Dexheimer PJ, Cochella L. MicroRNAs: from mechanism to organism. Front. Cell Dev. Biol. 8, 409 (2020).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 18. O'brien J, Hayder H, Zayed Y, Peng C. Overview of microRNA biogenesis, mechanisms of actions, and circulation. Front. Endocrinol. (Lausanne) 9, 402 (2018).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 19. Ben-Hamo R, Efroni S. MicroRNA regulation of molecular pathways as a generic mechanism and as a core disease phenotype. Oncotarget 6(3), 1594–1604 (2015).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 20. Macfarlane LA, Murphy PR. MicroRNA: biogenesis, function and role in cancer. Curr. Genomics 11(7), 537–561 (2010).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 21. Bartel DP. MicroRNAs: genomics, biogenesis, mechanism, and function. Cell 116(2), 281–297 (2004).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 22. Vasudevan S, Tong Y, Steitz JA. Switching from repression to activation: microRNAs can up-regulate translation. Science 318(5858), 1931–1934 (2007).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 23. Condrat CE, Thompson DC, Barbu MG et al. miRNAs as biomarkers in disease: latest findings regarding their role in diagnosis and prognosis. Cells 9(2), 276 (2020).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 24. Alles J, Fehlmann T, Fischer U et al. An estimate of the total number of true human miRNAs. Nucleic Acids Res. 47(7), 3353–3364 (2019).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 25. Ludwig N, Leidinger P, Becker K et al. Distribution of miRNA expression across human tissues. Nucleic Acids Res. 44(8), 3865–3877 (2016).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 26. Landgraf P, Rusu M, Sheridan R et al. A mammalian microRNA expression atlas based on small RNA library sequencing. Cell 129(7), 1401–1414 (2007).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 27. Callis TE, Chen JF, Wang DZ. MicroRNAs in skeletal and cardiac muscle development. DNA Cell Biol. 26(4), 219–225 (2007).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 28. Bradner JE, Hnisz D, Young RA. Transcriptional addiction in cancer. Cell 168(4), 629–643 (2017).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 29. Peng Y, Croce CM. The role of microRNAs in human cancer. Signal Transduct. Target Ther. 1, 15004 (2016).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 30. Svoronos AA, Engelman DM, Slack FJ. OncomiR or tumor suppressor? The duplicity of microRNAs in cancer. Cancer Res. 76(13), 3666–3670 (2016).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 31. Zenner ML, Baumann B, Nonn L. Oncogenic and tumor-suppressive microRNAs in prostate cancer. Curr. Opin. Endocr. Metab. Res. 10, 50–59 (2020).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 32. Wang H, Peng R, Wang J, Qin Z, Xue L. Circulating microRNAs as potential cancer biomarkers: the advantage and disadvantage. Clin. Epigenetics 10, 59 (2018).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 33. Lan H, Lu H, Wang X, Jin H. MicroRNAs as potential biomarkers in cancer: opportunities and challenges. Biomed. Res. Int. 2015, 125094 (2015).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 34. Saliminejad K, Khorram Khorshid HR, Ghaffari SH. Why have microRNA biomarkers not been translated from bench to clinic? Future Oncol. 15(8), 801–803 (2019).
  CASGoogle Scholar
• 35. Nik Mohamed Kamal N, Shahidan WNS. Non-exosomal and exosomal circulatory microRNAs: which are more valid as biomarkers? Front. Pharmacol. 10, 1500 (2019).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 36. Zhou X, Wen W, Zhu J et al. A six-microRNA signature in plasma was identified as a potential biomarker in diagnosis of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Oncotarget 8(21), 34468–34480 (2017).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 37. Schitcu VH, Raduly L, Nutu A et al. MicroRNA dysregulation in prostate cancer. Pharmgenomics Pers. Med. 15, 177–193 (2022).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 38. Shiina M, Hashimoto Y, Kulkarni P et al. Role of miR-182/PDCD4 axis in aggressive behavior of prostate cancer in the African Americans. BMC Cancer 21(1), 1028 (2021). • Offers a plausible molecular explanation of the differences in prostate cancer (PCa) in different populations.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 39. Byun YJ, Piao XM, Jeong P et al. Urinary microRNA-1913 to microRNA-3659 expression ratio as a non-invasive diagnostic biomarker for prostate cancer. Investig. Clin. Urol. 62(3), 340–348 (2021).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 40. Liu HP, Lai HM, Guo Z. Prostate cancer early diagnosis: circulating microRNA pairs potentially beyond single microRNAs upon 1231 serum samples. Brief Bioinform. 22(3), bbaa111 (2021).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 41. Fredsøe J, Rasmussen AKI, Laursen EB et al. Independent validation of a diagnostic noninvasive 3-microRNA ratio model (uCaP) for prostate cancer in cell-free urine. Clin. Chem. 65(4), 540–548 (2019). •• This model is completely noninvasive, was validated in two different cohorts and requires no additional normalization, making it suitable for further testing.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 42. Barceló M, Castells M, Bassas L, Vigués F, Larriba S. Semen miRNAs contained in exosomes as non-invasive biomarkers for prostate cancer diagnosis. Sci. Rep. 9(1), 13772 (2019).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 43. Paunescu IA, Bardan R, Marcu A et al. Biomarker potential of plasma microRNA-150-5p in prostate cancer. Medicina (Kaunas) 55(9), 564 (2019).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 44. Mello-Grand M, Gregnanin I, Sacchetto L et al. Circulating microRNAs combined with PSA for accurate and non-invasive prostate cancer detection. Carcinogenesis 40(2), 246–253 (2019).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 45. Urabe F, Matsuzaki J, Yamamoto Y et al. Large-scale circulating microRNA profiling for the liquid biopsy of prostate cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 25(10), 3016–3025 (2019).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 46. Bidarra D, Constâncio V, Barros-Silva D et al. Circulating microRNAs as biomarkers for prostate cancer detection and metastasis development prediction. Front. Oncol. 9, 900 (2019).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 47. Bhagirath D, Yang TL, Bucay N et al. microRNA-1246 is an exosomal biomarker for aggressive prostate cancer. Cancer Res. 78(7), 1833–1844 (2018).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 48. Paziewska A, Mikula M, Dabrowska M et al. Candidate diagnostic miRNAs that can detect cancer in prostate biopsy. Prostate 78(3), 178–185 (2018).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 49. Matin F, Jeet V, Moya L et al. A plasma biomarker panel of four microRNAs for the diagnosis of prostate cancer. Sci. Rep. 8(1), 6653 (2018).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 50. Fredsøe J, Rasmussen AKI, Thomsen AR et al. Diagnostic and prognostic microRNA biomarkers for prostate cancer in cell-free urine. Eur. Urol. Focus 4(6), 825–833 (2018).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 51. Rodríguez M, Bajo-Santos C, Hessvik NP et al. Identification of non-invasive miRNAs biomarkers for prostate cancer by deep sequencing analysis of urinary exosomes. Mol. Cancer 16(1), 156 (2017).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 52. Kim MY, Shin H, Moon HW, Park YH, Park J, Lee JY. Urinary exosomal microRNA profiling in intermediate-risk prostate cancer. Sci. Rep. 11(1), 7355 (2021).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 53. Shin S, Park YH, Jung SH et al. Urinary exosome microRNA signatures as a noninvasive prognostic biomarker for prostate cancer. NPJ Genom. Med. 6(1), 45 (2021).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 54. Guo T, Wang Y, Jia J et al. The identification of plasma exosomal miR-423-3p as a potential predictive biomarker for prostate cancer castration-resistance development by plasma exosomal miRNA sequencing. Front. Cell Dev. Biol. 8, 602493 (2020).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 55. Zhao Z, Weickmann S, Jung M et al. A novel predictor tool of biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy based on a five-microRNA tissue signature. Cancers (Basel) 11(10), 1603 (2019).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 56. Strand SH, Bavafaye-Haghighi E, Kristensen H et al. A novel combined miRNA and methylation marker panel (miMe) for prediction of prostate cancer outcome after radical prostatectomy. Int. J. Cancer 145(12), 3445–3452 (2019). •• Proposes a validated model that can reclassify low and intermediate Cancer of the Prostate Risk Assessment risk groups, allowing early adjuvant treatment.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 57. Nam RK, Benatar T, Wallis CJD et al. MicroRNA-139 is a predictor of prostate cancer recurrence and inhibits growth and migration of prostate cancer cells through cell cycle arrest and targeting IGF1R and AXL. Prostate 79(12), 1422–1438 (2019).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 58. Guan H, You Z, Wang C et al. MicroRNA-200a suppresses prostate cancer progression through BRD4/AR signaling pathway. Cancer Med. 8(4), 1474–1485 (2019).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 59. Fredsøe J, Rasmussen AKI, Mouritzen P, Borre M, Ørntoft T, Sørensen KD. A five-microRNA model (pCaP) for predicting prostate cancer aggressiveness using cell-free urine. Int. J. Cancer 145(9), 2558–2567 (2019).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 60. Schmidt L, Fredsøe J, Kristensen H et al. Training and validation of a novel 4-miRNA ratio model (MiCaP) for prediction of postoperative outcome in prostate cancer patients. Ann. Oncol. 29(9), 2003–2009 (2018).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 61. Liu RSC, Olkhov-Mitsel E, Jeyapala R et al. Assessment of serum microRNA biomarkers to predict reclassification of prostate cancer in patients on active surveillance. J. Urol. 199(6), 1475–1481 (2018).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 62. Nam RK, Benatar T, Amemiya Y et al. MicroRNA-652 induces NED in LNCaP and EMT in PC3 prostate cancer cells. Oncotarget 9(27), 19159–19176 (2018).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 63. Daniunaite K, Dubikaityte M, Gibas P et al. Clinical significance of miRNA host gene promoter methylation in prostate cancer. Hum. Mol. Genet. 26(13), 2451–2461 (2017).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 64. Lin HM, Mahon KL, Spielman C et al. Phase 2 study of circulating microRNA biomarkers in castration-resistant prostate cancer. Br. J. Cancer 116(8), 1002–1011 (2017).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 65. Smith RA, Andrews KS, Brooks D et al. Cancer screening in the United States, 2018: a review of current American Cancer Society guidelines and current issues in cancer screening. CA Cancer J. Clin. 68(4), 297–316 (2018).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 66. Foj L, Ferrer F, Serra M et al. Exosomal and non-exosomal urinary miRNAs in prostate cancer detection and prognosis. Prostate 77(6), 573–583 (2017).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 67. Porzycki P, Ciszkowicz E, Semik M, Tyrka M. Combination of three miRNA (miR-141, miR-21, and miR-375) as potential diagnostic tool for prostate cancer recognition. Int. Urol. Nephrol. 50(9), 1619–1626 (2018).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 68. Rajendiran S, Maji S, Haddad A et al. MicroRNA-940 as a potential serum biomarker for prostate cancer. Front. Oncol. 11, 628094 (2021).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 69. Ghorbanmehr N, Gharbi S, Korsching E, Tavallaei M, Einollahi B, Mowla SJ. miR-21-5p, miR-141-3p, and miR-205-5p levels in urine-promising biomarkers for the identification of prostate and bladder cancer. Prostate 79(1), 88–95 (2019).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 70. Xu Y, Qin S, An T, Tang Y, Huang Y, Zheng L. MiR-145 detection in urinary extracellular vesicles increase diagnostic efficiency of prostate cancer based on hydrostatic filtration dialysis method. Prostate 77(10), 1167–1175 (2017). •• Offers a method to extract exosomal miRNA with easy access that is straightforward and less expensive, which could be valuable for its use.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 71. Bhagirath D, Yang TL, Akoto T, Patel N, Tabatabai LZ, Saini S. MicroRNA-4287 is a novel tumor suppressor microRNA controlling epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in prostate cancer. Oncotarget 11(51), 4681–4692 (2020).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 72. Zhu C, Hou X, Zhu J, Jiang C, Wei W. Expression of miR-30c and miR-29b in prostate cancer and its diagnostic significance. Oncol. Lett. 16(3), 3140–3144 (2018).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 73. Waseem M, Ahmad MK, Serajuddin M, Bhaskar V, Sankhwar SN, Mahdi AA. MicroRNA-183-5p: a new potential marker for prostate cancer. Indian J. Clin. Biochem. 34(2), 207–212 (2019).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 74. Bhagirath D, Yang TL, Tabatabai ZL et al. Role of a novel race-related tumor suppressor microRNA located in frequently deleted chromosomal locus 8p21 in prostate cancer progression. Carcinogenesis 40(5), 633–642 (2019).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 75. Ali R, El Tabbakh S, El Delgawy W, Kotb A, Desouky MN. microRNA-141 as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for prostate cancer in Egyptian population: pilot study. Afr. J. Urol. 24(4), 347–352 (2018).
  Google Scholar
• 76. Ibrahim NH, Abdellateif MS, Thabet G et al. Combining PHI and miRNAs as biomarkers in prostate cancer diagnosis and prognosis. Clin. Lab. 65(7), (2019).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 77. Al-Kafaji G, Said HM, Alam MA, Al Naieb ZT. Blood-based microRNAs as diagnostic biomarkers to discriminate localized prostate cancer from benign prostatic hyperplasia and allow cancer-risk stratification. Oncol. Lett. 16(1), 1357–1365 (2018).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 78. Zhao Y, Tang X, Zhao Y, Yu Y, Liu S. Diagnostic significance of microRNA-1255b-5p in prostate cancer patients and its effect on cancer cell function. Bioengineered 12(2), 11451–11460 (2021).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 79. Endzeliņš E, Berger A, Melne V et al. Detection of circulating miRNAs: comparative analysis of extracellular vesicle-incorporated miRNAs and cell-free miRNAs in whole plasma of prostate cancer patients. BMC Cancer 17(1), 730 (2017).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 80. Feng S, Qian X, Li H, Zhang X. Combinations of elevated tissue miRNA-17-92 cluster expression and serum prostate-specific antigen as potential diagnostic biomarkers for prostate cancer. Oncol. Lett. 14(6), 6943–6949 (2017).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 81. Lazzeri M, Haese A, Abrate A et al. Clinical performance of serum prostate-specific antigen isoform [-2]proPSA (p2PSA) and its derivatives, %p2PSA and the prostate health index (PHI), in men with a family history of prostate cancer: results from a multicentre European study, the PROMEtheuS project. BJU Int. 112(3), 313–321 (2013).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 82. Stav K, Judith S, Merald H, Leibovici D, Lindner A, Zisman A. Does prostate biopsy Gleason score accurately express the biologic features of prostate cancer? Urol. Oncol. 25(5), 383–386 (2007).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 83. Mohler JL, Antonarakis ES, Armstrong AJ et al. Prostate Cancer, Version 2.2019, NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology. J. Natl Compr. Canc. Netw. 17(5), 479–505 (2019).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 84. Suer I, Guzel E, Karatas OF, Creighton CJ, Ittmann M, Ozen M. MicroRNAs as prognostic markers in prostate cancer. Prostate 79(3), 265–271 (2019).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 85. Bhagirath D, Liston M, Patel N et al. MicroRNA determinants of neuroendocrine differentiation in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Oncogene 39(49), 7209–7223 (2020).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 86. Colden M, Dar AA, Saini S et al. MicroRNA-466 inhibits tumor growth and bone metastasis in prostate cancer by direct regulation of osteogenic transcription factor RUNX2. Cell Death Dis. 8(1), e2572 (2017).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 87. Zhao F, Vesprini D, Liu RSC et al. Combining urinary DNA methylation and cell-free microRNA biomarkers for improved monitoring of prostate cancer patients on active surveillance. Urol. Oncol. 37(5), 297.e299–297.e217 (2019).
  Google Scholar
• 88. Valera VA, Parra-Medina R, Walter BA, Pinto P, Merino MJ. microRNA expression profiling in young prostate cancer patients. J. Cancer 11(14), 4106–4114 (2020).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 89. Ruiz-Plazas X, Altuna-Coy A, Alves-Santiago M et al. Liquid biopsy-based exo-oncomiRNAs can predict prostate cancer aggressiveness. Cancers (Basel) 13(2), 250 (2021).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 90. Peng P, Chen T, Wang Q et al. Decreased miR-218-5p levels as a serum biomarker in bone metastasis of prostate cancer. Oncol. Res. Treat. 42(4), 165–185 (2019).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 91. Stoen MJ, Andersen S, Rakaee M et al. High expression of miR-17-5p in tumor epithelium is a predictor for poor prognosis for prostate cancer patients. Sci. Rep. 11(1), 13864 (2021).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 92. Wang G, Cheng B, Jia R, Tan B, Liu W. Altered expression of microRNA-92b-3p predicts survival outcomes of patients with prostate cancer and functions as an oncogene in tumor progression. Oncol. Lett. 21(1), 4 (2021).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 93. Liu J, Quan Z, Gao Y, Wu X, Zheng Y. MicroRNA-199b-3p suppresses malignant proliferation by targeting phospholipase Cε and correlated with poor prognosis in prostate cancer. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 576, 73–79 (2021).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 94. Cai B, Chen W, Pan Y et al. Inhibition of microRNA-500 has anti-cancer effect through its conditional downstream target of TFPI in human prostate cancer. Prostate 77(10), 1057–1065 (2017).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 95. Wang C, Tian S, Zhang D et al. Increased expression of microRNA-93 correlates with progression and prognosis of prostate cancer. Medicine (Baltimore) 99(22), e18432 (2020).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 96. Fu F, Wan X, Wang D et al. MicroRNA-19a acts as a prognostic marker and promotes prostate cancer progression via inhibiting VPS37A expression. Oncotarget 9(2), 1931–1943 (2018).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 97. Zhang R, Li F, Wang Y, Yao M, Chi C. Prognostic value of microRNA-20b expression level in patients with prostate cancer. Histol. Histopathol. 35(8), 827–831 (2020).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 98. Liu JB, Yan YJ, Shi J et al. Upregulation of microRNA-191 can serve as an independent prognostic marker for poor survival in prostate cancer. Medicine (Baltimore) 98(29), e16193 (2019).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 99. Nam RK, Wallis CJD, Amemiya Y, Benatar T, Seth A. Identification of a novel microRNA panel associated with metastasis following radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer. Anticancer Res. 38(9), 5027–5034 (2018).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 100. Richardsen E, Andersen S, Melbø-Jørgensen C et al. MicroRNA 141 is associated to outcome and aggressive tumor characteristics in prostate cancer. Sci. Rep. 9(1), 386 (2019).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 101. Bucay N, Bhagirath D, Sekhon K et al. A novel microRNA regulator of prostate cancer epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Cell Death Differ. 24(7), 1263–1274 (2017).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 102. Wei W, Leng J, Shao H, Wang W. MiR-1, a potential predictive biomarker for recurrence in prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy. Am. J. Med. Sci. 353(4), 315–319 (2017).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 103. Lin BB, Lei HQ, Xiong HY et al. MicroRNA-regulated transcriptome analysis identifies four major subtypes with prognostic and therapeutic implications in prostate cancer. Comput. Struct. Biotechnol. J. 19, 4941–4953 (2021). • Identifies subtypes of PCa that have different progression and treatment susceptibilities that could be used to personalize treatment.
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 104. Puca L, Vlachostergios PJ, Beltran H. Neuroendocrine differentiation in prostate cancer: emerging biology, models, and therapies. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med. 9(2), 30593 (2019).
  Google Scholar
• 105. Yang X, Jiang D, Li Y et al. Which way to choose for the treatment of metastatic prostate cancer: a case report and literature review. Front. Oncol. 11, 659442 (2021).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 106. Cheng HH, Plets M, Li H et al. Circulating microRNAs and treatment response in the phase II SWOG S0925 study for patients with new metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer. Prostate 78(2), 121–127 (2018).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 107. Zedan AH, Hansen TF, Assenholt J, Pleckaitis M, Madsen JS, Osther PJS. microRNA expression in tumour tissue and plasma in patients with newly diagnosed metastatic prostate cancer. Tumour Biol. 40(5), 1010428318775864 (2018).
  Google Scholar
• 108. Zedan AH, Hansen TF, Assenholt J, Madsen JS, Osther PJS. Circulating miRNAs in localized/locally advanced prostate cancer patients after radical prostatectomy and radiotherapy. Prostate 79(4), 425–432 (2019).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 109. Zedan AH, Osther PJS, Assenholt J, Madsen JS, Hansen TF. Circulating miR-141 and miR-375 are associated with treatment outcome in metastatic castration resistant prostate cancer. Sci. Rep. 10(1), 227 (2020).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 110. Someya M, Hori M, Gocho T et al. Prediction of acute gastrointestinal and genitourinary radiation toxicity in prostate cancer patients using lymphocyte microRNA. Jpn J. Clin. Oncol. 48(2), 167–174 (2018). • To date, the only study to assess the performance of miRNA for any treatment-related outcomes, as most studies only address associations.
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 111. Kopcalic K, Petrovic N, Stanojkovic TP et al. Association between miR-21/146a/155 level changes and acute genitourinary radiotoxicity in prostate cancer patients: a pilot study. Pathol. Res. Pract. 215(4), 626–631 (2019).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 112. Wu G, Wang J, Chen G, Zhao X. microRNA-204 modulates chemosensitivity and apoptosis of prostate cancer cells by targeting zinc-finger E-box-binding homeobox 1 (ZEB1). Am. J. Transl. Res. 9(8), 3599–3610 (2017).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 113. Kok MG, Halliani A, Moerland PD, Meijers JC, Creemers EE, Pinto-Sietsma SJ. Normalization panels for the reliable quantification of circulating microRNAs by RT-qPCR. FASEB J. 29(9), 3853–3862 (2015).
  Medline CASGoogle Scholar
• 114. Zedan AH, Blavnsfeldt SG, Hansen TF et al. Heterogeneity of miRNA expression in localized prostate cancer with clinicopathological correlations. PLOS ONE 12(6), e0179113 (2017).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 115. Sauerbrei W, Taube SE, Mcshane LM, Cavenagh MM, Altman DG. Reporting recommendations for tumor marker prognostic studies (REMARK): an abridged explanation and elaboration. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 110(8), 803–811 (2018).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar
• 116. Lin Y, Qi X, Chen J, Shen B. Multivariate competing endogenous RNA network characterization for cancer microRNA biomarker discovery: a novel bioinformatics model with application to prostate cancer metastasis. Precis. Clin. Med. 5(1), pbac001 (2022).
  MedlineGoogle Scholar